JACN Did you know that you can get alerts when a new issue is online?
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

This Article
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Simopoulos, A. P.
Right arrow Articles by Salem, N.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Simopoulos, A. P.
Right arrow Articles by Salem, N., Jr
Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 18, No. 5, 487-489 (1999)
Published by the American College of Nutrition

Workshop on the Essentiality of and Recommended Dietary Intakes for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Artemis P. Simopoulos, MD, Alexander Leaf, MD and Norman Salem, Jr, PhD

The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, Washington, DC, (A.R.T.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, (A.L.)
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, (N.S.)


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
I. Adults
 II. Pregnancy and Lactation
 III. Composition of Infant...
 
The Workshop on the Essentiality of and Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids was held at The Cloisters, National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland, USA, April 7–9, 1999. The workshop was sponsored by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism-NIH, the Office of Dietary Supplements-NIH, The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, and the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids; and cosponsored by several industry groups1.

The workshop participants consisted of investigators of the role of essential fatty acids in infant nutrition, cardiovascular disease, and mental health. The first two areas were selected because they are the ones where extensive studies involving animal models, clinical intervention trials, and biochemical and physiologic mechanisms and their function have been carried out relative to omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. The role of essential fatty acids in mental health is a new, but promising research area.

The workshop was truly international in nature bringing together scientists from academia, government, international organizations, and industry, from Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, Norway, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States.

The first two days of the workshop consisted of presentations and extensive discussions. The format of the workshop was Round Table permitting extensive discussion following individual presentations and at the completion of each session. The first day consisted of Session I. Principles to be Considered in Determining Essentiality and DRIs and Session II. Essential Fatty Acids and Central Nervous System Function. Day two began with Session III. Cardiovascular Disease and ended with Session IV: Relationship of Essential Fatty Acids to Saturated, Monounsaturated, and Trans Fatty Acids. On the morning of the third day, during Session V. Dietary Recommendations and Omega-6:Omega-3 Ratio (LA, LNA, AA, EPA, DHA), industry representatives reported on studies supported by their companies, on clinical interventions, and product development. Representatives from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) presented their agencies’ scientific studies or policies on the dietary intake of fatty acids, especially essential fatty acids, and their activities in the field.

One recommendation deserves explanation here. After much discussion consensus was reached on the importance of reducing the omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) even as the omega-3 PUFAs are increased in the diet of adults and newborns for optimal brain and cardiovascular health and function. This is necessary to reduce adverse effects of excesses of arachidonic acid and its eicosanoid products. Such excesses can occur when too much LA and AA are present in the diet and an adequate supply of dietary omega-3 fatty acids is not available. The adverse effects of too much arachidonic acid and its eicosanoids can be avoided by two interdependent dietary changes. First, the amount of plant oils rich in LA, the parent compound of the omega-6 class, which is converted to AA, needs to be reduced. Second, simultaneously the omega-3 PUFAs need to be increased in the diet. LA can be converted to arachidonic acid and the enzyme, {Delta}-6 desaturase, necessary to desaturate it, is the same one necessary to desaturate LNA, the parent compound of the omega-3 class; each competes with the other for this desaturase. The presence of LNA in the diet can inhibit the conversion of the large amounts of LA in the diets of Western industrialized countries which contain too much dietary plant oils rich in omega-6 PUFAs (e.g. corn, safflower, and soybean oils). The increase of LNA, together with EPA and DHA, and reduction of vegetable oils with high LA content, are necessary to achieve a healthier diet in these countries.

The afternoon of the third day was devoted to discussion of the omega-6 and omega-3 essential fatty acids and their relationship to other fatty acids. The discussion focussed on specific recommendations for healthy adults, pregnant and lactating women, and the composition of infant formula that will support the growth and development of the formula-fed infant no differently than the breast-fed infant.


   I. Adults
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 I. Adults
II. Pregnancy and Lactation
 III. Composition of Infant...
 
The working group recognized that there are not enough data to determine Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI), but there are good data to make recommendations for Adequate Intakes (AI) for Adults as shown in Table 1.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Table 1. Adequate Intakes (AI)* for Adults

 

   II. Pregnancy and Lactation
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 I. Adults
 II. Pregnancy and Lactation
III. Composition of Infant...
 
For pregnancy and lactation, the recommendations are the same as those for adults with the additional recommendation seen in footnote 1 (Table 1), that during pregnancy and lactation women must ensure a DHA intake of 300 mg/d.


   III. Composition of Infant Formula/Diet
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 I. Adults
 II. Pregnancy and Lactation
 III. Composition of Infant...
 
It was thought of utmost importance to focus on the composition of the infant formula considering the large number of premature infants around the world, the low number of women who breastfeed, and the need for proper nutrition of the sick infant. The composition of the infant formula/diet was based on studies that demonstrated support for both the growth and neural development of infants in a manner similar to that of the breastfed infant (Table 2).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Table 2. Adequate Intake (AI)* for Infant Formula/Diet

 
The following workshop participants have agreed to this summary statement. The copyright of this statement is held by the working group in order to publish it worldwide. The views expressed in this statement do not reflect any official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Eileen Birch, Ph.D. (Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, Texas, USA), Jacques Boudreau (Ocean Nutrition Canada, Ltd., Bedford, Nova Scotia, Canada), Raffaele De Caterina, M.D., Ph.D. (CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology, Pisa, Italy), William Clay, Ph.D. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy), S. Boyd Eaton, M.D. (Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA), Claudio Galli, M.D. (University of Milan, Milan, Italy), Tomohito Hamazaki, M.D., Ph.D. (Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama, Japan), William S. Harris, Ph.D. (St. Luke’s Hospital, Kansas City, Kansas, USA), Joseph R. Hibbeln, M.D. (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA), Peter R.C. Howe, Ph.D. (University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia), David J. Kyle, Ph.D. (Martek Biosciences Corporation, Columbia, Maryland, USA), William E. Lands, Ph.D. (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA), Dominique Lanzmann-Petithory, M.D. (Groupe Danone, Athis Mons, France), Alexander Leaf, M.D. (Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA), Roberto Marchioli, M.D. (Consorzio Mario Negri Sud, Santa Maria Imbaro, Italy), Reto Muggli, Ph.D. (F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland), Gary J. Nelson, Ph.D. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, San Francisco, California, USA), Sandra Ohnesorg (BASF Health & Nutrition, Ballerup, Denmark), Harumi Okuyama, M.D. (Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan), Manuel Peña, M.D. (Pan American Health Organization, Washington, D.C., USA), Serge Renaud, M.D. (INSERM, Bordeaux, France), Bjorn Rene, Ph.D. (Pronova Biocare, A.S., Sandefjord, Norway), Norman Salem, Jr., Ph.D. (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Rockville, Maryland, USA), Artemis P. Simopoulos, M.D. (The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, Washington, D.C., USA), Andrew Sinclair, Ph.D. (RMIT, Melbourne, Australia), Arthur A. Spector, M.D. (The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA), Paul A. Stitt, Ph.D. (Essential Nutrient Research Company, Manitowoc, Wisconsin, USA), Andrew L. Stoll, M.D. (McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA), Peter Willatts, Ph.D. (University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom), and Herbert Woolf, Ph.D. (BASF Corporation, Mount Olive, New Jersey, USA).


   FOOTNOTES
 
1 BASF Corp., USA; BASF Health and Nutrition A/S; Bestfoods; ENRECO; F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd.; Groupe Danone; Kraft Foods, Inc.; Martek Biosciences Corporation; Mead Johnson Nutritionals; Ocean Nutrition Canada, Ltd.; Omega Tech, Inc.; Pronova Biocare; and Roche Vitamins, Inc. Back

Received July 1, 1999.


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Poult. Sci.Home page
M. J. Zuidhof, M. Betti, D. R. Korver, F. I. L. Hernandez, B. L. Schneider, V. L. Carney, and R. A. Renema
Omega-3-enriched broiler meat: 1. Optimization of a production system
Poult. Sci., May 1, 2009; 88(5): 1108 - 1120.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Immunol.Home page
I. R. Hassan and K. Gronert
Acute Changes in Dietary {omega}-3 and {omega}-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Have a Pronounced Impact on Survival following Ischemic Renal Injury and Formation of Renoprotective Docosahexaenoic Acid-Derived Protectin D1
J. Immunol., March 1, 2009; 182(5): 3223 - 3232.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
A. C. Patterson and K. D. Stark
Direct Determinations of the Fatty Acid Composition of Daily Dietary Intakes Incorporating Nutraceuticals and Functional Food Strategies to Increase n-3 Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., October 1, 2008; 27(5): 538 - 546.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed.Home page
C King and M Fewtrell
Fishing for brain power?
Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed., January 1, 2008; 93(1): F4 - F6.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 cfpHome page
G. Schwalfenberg
Recommend {omega}-3 fatty acids in pregnancy?
Can Fam Physician, August 1, 2007; 53(8): 1299 - 1300.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Nutr.Home page
M. K. Ozias, S. E. Carlson, and B. Levant
Maternal Parity and Diet (n-3) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Concentration Influence Accretion of Brain Phospholipid Docosahexaenoic Acid in Developing Rats
J. Nutr., January 1, 2007; 137(1): 125 - 129.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Nutr.Home page
B. Levant, M. K. Ozias, and S. E. Carlson
Diet (n-3) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Content and Parity Interact to Alter Maternal Rat Brain Phospholipid Fatty Acid Composition
J. Nutr., August 1, 2006; 136(8): 2236 - 2242.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. R Akabas and R. J Deckelbaum
Preface
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2006; 83(6): S1451 - 1451S.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
C. L Jensen
Effects of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2006; 83(6): S1452 - 1457S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. C McCann and B. N Ames
Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2005; 82(2): 281 - 295.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
K. Gronert, N. Maheshwari, N. Khan, I. R. Hassan, M. Dunn, and M. Laniado Schwartzman
A Role for the Mouse 12/15-Lipoxygenase Pathway in Promoting Epithelial Wound Healing and Host Defense
J. Biol. Chem., April 15, 2005; 280(15): 15267 - 15278.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Nutr.Home page
J. Denomme, K. D. Stark, and B. J. Holub
Directly Quantitated Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acid Intakes of Pregnant Canadian Women Are Lower than Current Dietary Recommendations
J. Nutr., February 1, 2005; 135(2): 206 - 211.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. M Innis, Z. Vaghri, and D J. King
n-6 Docosapentaenoic acid is not a predictor of low docosahexaenoic acid status in Canadian preschool children
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2004; 80(3): 768 - 773.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M. F Leitzmann, M. J Stampfer, D. S Michaud, K. Augustsson, G. C Colditz, W. C Willett, and E. L Giovannucci
Dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2004; 80(1): 204 - 216.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch OphthalmolHome page
D. H. Wheaton, D. R. Hoffman, K. G. Locke, R. B. Watkins, and D. G. Birch
Biological Safety Assessment of Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation in a Randomized Clinical Trial for X-Linked Retinitis Pigmentosa
Arch Ophthalmol, September 1, 2003; 121(9): 1269 - 1278.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M. J James, V. M Ursin, and L. G Cleland
Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2003; 77(5): 1140 - 1145.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. M Innis and S. L Elias
Intakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2003; 77(2): 473 - 478.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 JEMHome page
C. N. Serhan, S. Hong, K. Gronert, S. P. Colgan, P. R. Devchand, G. Mirick, and R.-L. Moussignac
Resolvins: A Family of Bioactive Products of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Transformation Circuits Initiated by Aspirin Treatment that Counter Proinflammation Signals
J. Exp. Med., October 21, 2002; 196(8): 1025 - 1037.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 JEMHome page
C. N. Serhan, C. B. Clish, J. Brannon, S. P. Colgan, N. Chiang, and K. Gronert
Novel Functional Sets of Lipid-Derived Mediators with Antiinflammatory Actions Generated from Omega-3 Fatty Acids via Cyclooxygenase 2-Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs and Transcellular Processing
J. Exp. Med., October 16, 2000; 192(8): 1197 - 1204.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Simopoulos, A. P.
Right arrow Articles by Salem, N.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Simopoulos, A. P.
Right arrow Articles by Salem, N., Jr

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS